Compiled by Tony High

Before the New Kingdom there was no such thing as a 'standing' army in Egypt. In the event of a war the governor of each Nome was expected to raise a number of 'volunteers'. These so-called volunteers would then mass under the banner of pharaoh. This system of amassing an army was open to abuse by the wealthy of society, paying for an exemption, which in turn led to dissatisfaction and sometimes open revolt amongst the lower classes.

		During the New Kingdom the army was to undergo an image change. No longer was it seen as an auxiliary role to the functioning of the state, but as an essential mechanism. A new era was ushered in, when a series of army generals exceeded the throne, starting with Tuthmosis III, who learning from experience, established a permanent professional army.
ARMY MODELS	TUTHMOSIS III

This line was briefly broken when Akhenaten assumed the throne. During his reign, military and foreign policies were ignored, resulting in a badly weakened reputation in the Levant. Egypt's reputation was to be re-established to its former exalted heights, with the next series of pharaohs and was to last for approximately 183 years.
	AKHENATEN	HOREMHEB

It was Horemheb (c.1334 BC), who restored and expanded Egypt's borders, followed by Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, and finally ending with Ramesses III (c.1151 BC).

A new, superior army

		It was during the long military campaigns against the Hyksos that the Egyptian army learned to use the superior strategies and weapons of their enemies. The new 'model' army was based on a structured hierarchy controlled with strict discipline.
WAR CHARIOT	ARMY MODELS

To encourage loyalty and bravery from his soldiers, pharaoh would award promotions, and commendations, which could take the form of gold, land or even prisoners. But the most sought after award was a promotion in social status.

In contrast to the past, the army became a privileged means of improving position and status in life. At every level of command there was a clearly defined hierarchy. However, it was possible for an educated Egyptian or simple scribe to work his way up this military hierarchy to become an officer. Opportunities were available for the upper ranks to attain nobility, which as a social class were not very knowledgeable in the art of warfare. Pharaoh insisted that his high-ranking officers were not just able leaders and strategists but also well educated. Therefore, most of the officers came from the nobility, who would occupy such ranks as archery commander, divisional commander, commander of the chariot corps or overseer of the royal stables. This last rank was the most prestigious and most highly prized.

To maintain the esteem of his officers, pharaoh would bestow generous rewards such as honorific titles, land, slaves and gold. Nothing was too good for those that contributed to Egypt's greatness. The most brilliant strategists were awarded hereditary titles associated with their rank and position. The outcome of these commendations was that a class of 'military elite' arose, who were able to command a considerable opposing force to a weak pharaoh.

Warfare at this period in time did not consist of mass ranks of disciplined armies squaring up to one another across an open plain. In fact, this only occurred once, when Ramesses II army confronted Hattusilis III army at the battle of Kadesh. After an opening skirmish, the opposing forces decided a battle would be futile and a truce was agreed with the two armies retreating. Instead, the preferred tactic was to subdue a weaker city or state one at a time resulting in a surrender of each faction until complete domination was achieved. A similar tactic was in evidence at the siege of Dapur, a heavily fortified city, standing on a hill and protected by an enormous inner and outer wall. The Egyptians exercised a war of attrition using battering rams, ladders, fire and even starvation, to overwhelm the occupants into submission.

Structure

	Pharaoh, as the head of the army held the title of Supreme Commander, who was assisted by his commander of the army.  The four generals were comprised from royal princes, royal favourites and high-ranking court officials, whose titles were purely consultative, and not military. While the commanders consisted of high-ranking officers, the platoon commanders were dedicated soldiers, equivalent to modern non-commissioned officers.  During the New Kingdom the army consisted of a large contingent of mercenaries, and a commander of the same ethnic origin would lead each ethnic group.
BLUE WAR CROWN

Weaponry

Weaponry and armour during the Old and Middle Kingdoms was basic to the extreme. The light infantry wore a belt and a G-string, whilst carrying a simple single curved bow along with primitive bronze arrow-heads. Whilst the heavy infantry were equipped with a roughly made shield constructed from wood and leather, a bronze sword, and a copper-headed spear.

The invasion and overthrow of Egypt by the Hyksos (c.1660-1550 BC) was due to superior military techniques and strategies. The Hyksos were already masters of mobile warfare with the advent of the horse drawn chariot, a formidable fighting machine, which the Egyptians had no answer to until they introduced their own version of the war chariot at the beginning of the 18th dynasty (c.1550-1295 BC). It was not just the Hyksos who were more technically advanced at this time, the Syrians and Hittites had also introduced new weapons, which the Egyptians soon assimilated into its own army. These consisted of the composite bow, introduced by the Hyksos, the double-bow from the Hittites, a tasselled helmet, and short-sleeved coats of mail, consisting of a leather jacket from which metal plates were hung.

Ramesses II overthrew a race of people known as the Sherden, who originated from the coast of Turkey. They had a reputation of being fearsome pirates who would attack any vessels sailing too far from the Egyptian coastline. 

These pirates were skilled mercenaries, who carried a distinctive straight sword and wore horned protective helmets. Ramesses II seconded these pirates into his army and were to play a pivotal role at the battle of Kadesh. (It is believed that it was the Sherden who came to Ramesses II aid, just as the tide of war was turning against Ramesses, preventing a humiliating Egyptian defeat.)  A new harder wearing curve bladed sword known as a Kopesh was introduced, along with stronger shields that would eventually be made from metal. However, the stronger iron weapons used by the Hittites do not seem to have been readily assimilated into Egyptian culture. The iron dagger found in Tutankhamun's tomb would appear to be for ceremonial purposes only.

The chariot

The Egyptians were not the inventors of the war chariot - this honour can be attributed to the Syrians. In fact, the first time the Egyptians saw a chariot was during the war against the Hyksos (c.1650-1550BC). The first known inscription depicting an Egyptian chariot is to be found on a scarab belonging to Thutmosis I c.1524-1518 BC pursuing a foe. The warrior pharaohs were quick to realise the military might and prowess of a mobile fighting unit and began to build up a large chariot corps of their own through trade and seizure. At Megiddo (c.1456 BC) Thutmosis III claimed to have captured 924 chariots from the defeated princes of Syria.

The Syrian chariot was a somewhat heavy and cumbersome vehicle. The Egyptians being great innovators, adapted the design to suit their own requirements:

To become a charioteer was an honour and held in high esteem, and even received the royal seal of approval. The commander of the elite charioteers was chosen from the best and most loyal royal supporters. One of the most illustrious and prestigious titles that could be bestowed upon a soldier was that of 'Commander of his Majesty's Chariot Corps'.

Defence of the kingdom

Egypt's natural borders, the Western Desert, the Sinai Desert, the Mediterranean coast and the First Cataract at Aswan have defended Egypt since the beginning of time. These were sufficient to protect the Egyptians from outside interference for centuries.

		It was during the Old Kingdom (c.2613-2181 BC) that the first fort was constructed, built near the Second Cataract at Buhen in Nubia. Its use was not so much as protection for pharaoh's raiding parties, but as a symbol of pharaoh's power over a subjugated Lower Nubia.  The vast majority of defensive forts were built during the Middle Kingdom (c.2040-1782 BC) when the Egyptians embarked on a programme of military expansion.

Her borders, wells and waterholes were protected by a chain of forts, each one was a day's march apart, covering an area from the Delta edge, Memphis and as far west as Umm-el-Rakham.

There was a similar defensive line protecting Egypt's east border known as 'The way of the Horus', an area of 140 miles of inhospitable desert. At Sile the fort acted like a modern day custom and excises border control, requiring everybody to register by name, town of origin and intended destination before anybody was allowed entry.  A posting to one of the forts was quite lengthy and lasted for approximately 6 years. The most dreaded posting for a soldier was to the outpost fort at Umm-el-Rakham. It was some 200 miles west of Alexandria, and entailed a weeks march through hostile territory and open to attack from even more hostile nomads.

The fort was a huge sprawling structure; some 20,000 sq. meters in area and defended by mud brick walls some 5 mts thick.  Access was through a solitary gate, which was guarded by pair of twin towers. The thick outer wall contained some 1,600,000 bricks so big; one man was only able to carry 2 bricks at a time.

The only 'perk' of such a desolate posting was that the soldiers were able to acquire foreign goods 'donated' by merchants on their way to the lucrative markets at Memphis, such as wine, olive oil even opium.

Life as a soldier

What we know of life as a soldier has come from contemporary records. We know that postings were fairly lengthy, depending on circumstances, they could be as long as 6 years and contrary to popular belief, the army was well catered for and highly regarded. This is evidenced during the Theban wars under Mentuhotep I. A mass tomb contained the bodies of sixty slain soldiers, who almost certainly died whilst campaigning in Nubia. The bodies were brought back for an Egyptian burial, so that fallen could enjoy an Afterlife, and is one of the earliest known war cemeteries. 

Compare these two contrasting accounts:

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