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Compiled by Tony High
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IMPORTANT NOTE: The subject of Egyptology can best be described as a "fluid" science rather than an absolute one. New discoveries are continually altering our perception of the history of Ancient Egypt along with its chronology. As such, the chronology of Ancient Egypt is the subject of conjecture and debate. Throughout this article, the author will use the chronology from the Oxford History of Ancient Egypt when referring to a particular date or event. Moreover, one can not talk about the Old Kingdom without firstly giving a brief synopsis of the Early Dynastic Period (c.3000-2686 BCE)
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The foundation of the pharaonic state
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The Old Kingdom is generally recognised as beginning with the 3rd Dynasty (c.2686 BCE) and finishing at the end of the 6th Dynasty (C.2160 BCE) a period of some 526 years. However, it may be argued that the Old Kingdom came into being with the unification of the country. Early scholars believed this founding point in Egyptian history coincided with the birth of the 1st Dynasty c.3000 BCE, with Menes, Narmer, Scorpion and Aha.
However, recent excavations at Abydos have revealed that there was some fourteen predecessor ‘kings’, which have now been designated as Dynasty 0. Perhaps it is these proto-kings, who over the mists of time merged into the mythological, character Osiris who, according to early mythology, became the king of the dead and was buried at Abydos. The early belief that Narmer was the founding king was reinforced with the finding of the Narmer Macehead and the Narmer Palette, which were thought to graphically represent the unification of the country through military intervention. The victor, being crowned king over the Two Lands set up his capital between Buto and Nekhen at Memphis "Mekha Tawy", The Balance of the Two Lands, a title that reflected the continuing unstable political climate.
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The Narmer Palette is thought to show Narmer over- throwing the armies of Lower Egypt, unifying the two countries. Narmer is shown here wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt, and on the obverse side of the palette is shown wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt.
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As stated in the introduction, new discoveries have now disproved the established ideal of unification through military conflict. Archaeological evidence has shown that the unification was a long protracted affair, taking up to 100 years or longer to complete, beginning long before Narmer was crowned king. Pottery remains show that the more technically advanced communities of Upper Egypt were trading with Lower Egypt over a number of years, cementing a cultural and economic unification.
Political unification undoubtedly followed, with the migration of people from one community to another to form trading networks. Texts found at Abydos confirm that the written word was in use some 60 years before the inauguration of the 1st Dynasty, as evidenced by produce labels found in tomb U-j, dating c.3150 BCE.
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| The first evidence of writing, bone labels found in tomb U-j at Abydos. The left hand label could be an early representation of Wepwawet (Anubis). The right hand label may represent an early form of the Seth animal. |
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Moreover, religious doctrines had already been formulated, mythology or more correctly cosmologies (describing how the world and the gods came into being) were already in place. Indeed, the concept of pharaoh being perceived as the sun god incarnate, in the form of a semi-divine falcon, whose role it was to maintain cosmic and earthly order through Ma’at had already been established.
Theology and religious texts from Ancient Egypt never represented the world without a pharaoh: the creator brought the universe and royalty into being at the same time. Before people existed, spirits ruled the world for 5813 years and before them, the gods themselves for 13,900 years. The very first of these was the sun god Re.
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The goddess Ma'at.
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A proclamation issued by Narmer to his people personified his divine nature. He embarked upon a reclamation project, diverting the course of the Nile, a feat akin to the god Ptah (depending on which mythology was current at the time) causing the primeval mound to rise out of the waters of chaos.
Perhaps it was this single event that "planted" the concept into the psyche of the early Egyptians that pharaoh had divine attributes. This divine power was hereditary, and upon the king's death (when he then became Osiris) the divine power was passed onto the eldest son (who himself became the new Horus).
The physical representation of pharaoh >>
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