Religion guided every aspect of ancient Egyptian life. Like many ancient cultures, the religion of ancient Egypt was polytheistic (many gods) and a great number of gods and goddesses were worshipped - some of great importance, whilst others were simply local or household deities. Apart from a short period of "state monotheism" under the so-called "heretic" pharaoh Akhenaten, the tradition of the polytheistic religion had an enduring continuity throughout the centuries of ancient Egyptian culture. The religion itself gradually developed and evolved, becoming more sophisticated and more complex over time. This is particularly obvious from the Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts, that had, by the New Kingdom period, developed into the multi faceted funerary texts we know so well today.

From the earliest times, the Egyptians paid homage to their dead by burying them and shielding their remains through eternity. Egypt had a highly developed view of the afterlife with elaborate rituals for preparing the body and soul for a peaceful life after death. Beliefs about the soul and afterlife focused heavily on preservation of the body, and it is primarily because of this and the surviving temple and tomb reliefs that we know so much today about their religious thoughts and practices.

Iconic burials - perhaps the most famous tombs ever built in the history of humanity. The primal archetype of the Egyptian pyramid was the sacred Ben-Ben stone in the temple of Heliopolis, the oldest centre of the sun cult. The original stone at Heliopolis, symbolising the primeval mound, was believed to have been the point at which the rays of the rising sun first fell. The gilded capstone of the pyramid, which would sit at the apex was known as a ben-benet.

The Egyptians saw death as a transitional stage in the progress to a better life in the next world. They believed that they could only reach their full potential after death, and that every person was thought to have three "souls", the "ka," the "ba," and the "akh." For these to function properly, it was considered essential for the body to survive intact. Their belief in the rebirth after death became the fundamental driving force behind their complex and detailed funeral practices.

Like many cultures, the ancient Egyptians were driven to find meaning in existence, but there were also other influences on their religion, such as the need to justify kingship, amongst others. One of the very strong traditions was that of divine kingship - the belief that Pharaoh was not only the political ruler of the country but also a god. As both ruler and a god, pharaoh held an immense amount of power, and his function as a representative of the gods was to preserve "ma'at" and restore the original harmony of the universe, imposing order and preventing chaos.

Creation - ancient Egyptian style

In attempting to understand their place within the universe and the world as they knew it, the ancient Egyptians created their own distinct creation mythology based upon nature, and focusing closely on the earth, sky, moon, sun, stars, and of course the all important Nile.

Heliopolis, (from the Greek, meaning city of the sun) capital of the 13th nome is located in the ruins of Iunu in the north western periphery of Cairo. It is here that the creation of Egyptian myth began. Ancient Egyptian mythology states that in the beginning of time everything began with Nun. Nun is the descriptive representation of what the planet was thought to be like before land appeared. Nu was a vast area of swirling watery chaos, and as the floods receded the land appeared. Out of these waters, the god Atum rose. Pyramid Text Utterance 600 records this theology:

Atum-Kheprer, you have come to be high on the hill, you have arisen on the Ben-ben stone in the mansion of the Benu-bird in Heliopolis, you spat out Shu, you expectorated Tefnut, and you put your two arms around them as the arms of a ka-symbol, so that your ka might be in them … O great Ennead which is in Heliopolis - Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys - children of Atum, extend his heart to his child, the king, in your name of Nine Bows.

The Heliopolitan Ennead

Probably the most well known and influential creation myths. The world began as a watery chaos called Nun, from which the sun-god Atum (later to identified with Re) emerged on a mound known as the "benben". By his own power he spat out the twin deities Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture) who between themselves went on to produce Geb (the earth) and then Nut (the sky).

A union between Geb and Nut then produced Osiris, Isis, Seth and Nephthys. These nine "gods" so created formed the divine ennead (i.e. company of nine) which in later texts was often regarded as a single divine entity. From this system derived the commonly accepted conception of the universe represented as a figure of the air-god Shu standing and supporting with his hands the out-stretched body of the sky-goddess Nut, with Geb the earth-god lying at his feet.

The Hermopolitan Ogdoad

The second cosmological tradition of Egypt was developed at Hermopolis, the capital of the 15th nome of Upper Egypt, and apparently during a time of reaction against the religious hegemony of Heliopolis. According to this tradition, chaos existed at the beginning of time before the world was created. This chaos possessed four characteristics identified with eight deities who were grouped in pairs: Nun and Naunet, (god and goddess of the primordial water), Heh and Hehet, (god and goddess of infinite space), Kek and Keket, (god and goddess of darkness), and Amun and Amunet, (god and goddess of invisibility).

These deities were the personifications of the characteristic elements of chaos out of which the earth emerged. They formed what is called the Hermopolitan ogdoad (company of eight). Out of chaos rose the primeval mound at Hermopolis and on the mound was deposited an egg from which emerged the great sun-god. The sun-god then proceeded to organise the world. The Hermopolitan idea of chaos was of something more active than the chaos of the Heliopolitan system; but after the ultimate triumph of the latter system, a subtle modification (no doubt introduced largely for political reasons) made Nun the father and creator of Atum.

The Memphite theology

A third creation myth was developed at Memphis, when it became the capital city of the kings of Egypt. Ptah, the principal god of Memphis, had to be shown to be the great creator-god, and a new legend about creation was coined. An attempt was made however, to organise the new cosmogony so that any potential rift with the priests of Heliopolis might be avoided.

Thus, Ptah was the great creator-god, but eight other gods were believed to be contained within him. Of these eight, some were members of the Heliopolitan Ennead, and others of the Hermopolitan Ogdoad. Atum, for example, held a special position, Nun and Naunet were included, together with Tatjenen, a Memphite god personifying the earth emerging from chaos, and four other deities whose names are not certain. They were probably Horus, Thoth, Nefertum, and a serpent-god.

Atum was held to represent the active abilities of Ptah by which creation was achieved, these being intelligence - identified with the heart and personified as Horus, and will - identified with the tongue and personified as Thoth.

Ptah conceived the world intellectually before creating it "by his own word". According to the Memphite theology, he created the universe by using his heart and his tongue (thought and speech). For the ancient Egyptians the heart was the seat of thought, not the brain. By uttering the name of all things he brought them into being, for according to Egyptian belief the name, known as "the ren" held the essence of a being or a thing. In this way Ptah was said to have created all the gods.

The whole Memphite theology is preserved on a slab of basalt now exhibited in the Egyptian Sculpture Gallery. It was composed at an early date, and committed to stone during the 25th Dynasty by the order of King Shabaka. The "Shabaka Stone" was later used as a mill-stone and as a result, much of the text has now been lost. The document known as the Bremner-Rhind Papyrus includes, among other religious texts, two monologues of the sun-god describing how he created all things.

Aspects of the religious system in ancient Egypt

The spiritual world that was created by the ancient Egyptians was a richly fascinating one which remains unique in the history of human religion. Discover more about the complexities and beliefs of the religious system of ancient Egypt:

	The gods and goddesses of ancient Egypt. The Egyptian gods and goddesses were prone to mirror humanity - in essence they lived, died, hunted, went into battle, gave birth, ate, drank, and had human emotions. Certain towns and villages often had unique gods that were known or worshipped only in that specific region. We've compiled a list of some of the primary deities that were worshipped throughout the black land.
	The afterlife. The ancient Egyptians believed that death was the end of physical life in this world, but that through death one could be renewed. Once resurected, the deceased could go on to live an eternal life, free from the physical limitations of age or poverty. Adherence to a intricate set of rituals ensured that your spirit could finally take flight and move on to enjoy this glorious world of the afterlife.
	Mummification. The artificial preservation of the dead body was one of the hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilisation, and mummification was practiced in Egypt for 4000 years. The complex process included embalming the bodies and wrapping them in strips of linen, and this remarkably successful conservation of the body has allowed us today to stare into the very faces of some of the most famous pharaohs in ancient Egypt's history.
	Astronomy. Ancient Egypt had a rich religious tradition which permeated every aspect of society. As in most early cultures, the patterns and behaviours of the sky led to the creation of a number of myths designed to explain certain astronomical phenomena. For the Egyptians, the practice of astronomy went beyond legend: huge temples and pyramids were built to have a specific astronomical orientation in relation to the stars and constellations.
	Temples. In addition to being a primary place of worship and the symbolic home of associated god or goddess, temples were also major administrative centres, and could own vast estates of land and livestock. They often depended on donations, sometimes even the spoils of war, in order to support the considerable temple population of priests, administrators and support workers.
	The funerary texts of ancient Egypt. The magical text that decorated the tombs of the ancient pharaohs of Egypt would provide a detailed roadmap of the what the Egyptians believed to be the Netherworld. Most of these were derived in some manner from the much earlier Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts developed by the Kings of the 5th and 6th Dynasty.

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