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The history of Pharoanic Egypt spans nearly three millennia, during which time significant accomplishments were achieved during three main periods that Egyptologists refer to as the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms. Lasting roughly for around 500 years, 200 years and 500 years respectively, these periods were interrupted by the "intermediate periods", where loss of central authority, control or foreign invasion led to decline.
The ancient Egyptian civilisation changed dramatically throughout the course of these years, and many of these changes are reflected in how the tombs of the Kings and Queens, nobleman and workers were built and decorated.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE ROYAL TOMBS:
| Pre-Dynastic and Early Dynastic tombs: |
Abydos was the burial place for the pre-dynastic kings and the first kings of a unified Egypt. The pre-dynastic cemetery of el-Amra at Abydos contains hundreds of graves dating from all pre-dynastic phases and contains several hundred graves and offering pits. Of particular importance is tomb "U-j", a large, brick-lined shallow rectangular pit hewn out of the bedrock and divided by cross-walls into a series of 12 chambers. It still contained much funerary equipment and included large amounts of Egyptian pottery, and around 150 labels of ivory or bone.
Royal graves at Abydos gradually became more sophisticated. The last and largest royal tomb to be built there was for Khasekhemwy, the last king of the 2nd Dynasty.
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| The Mastaba: |
This was the earliest and simplest tomb super-structure, consisting of a single elevated rectangular platform and built of mud-brick. The tomb below would usually be divided into chambers, used for the placement of the body and possessions of the deceased. They were not particularly elaborate and were not usually decorated.
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| The Step Pyramid: |
The first pyramid funerary complex designed and built by Imhotep for the 3rd Dynasty pharaoh Djoser. Developed initially from the earlier rectangular mastaba tombs, the step pyramid was gradually extended and elaborated until it became a superstructure. Made of six giant steps, it contains many chambers, including a heb-sed court.
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| True Pyramids: |
The Step Pyramid was the first all stone monument and was, of course, the inspiration for the true pyramids that followed, beginning with Snefru's 4th Dynasty pyramids at Meidum and Dahshur (the bent pyramid) and progressing onto the first true pyramid, the "red pyramid" at Dahshur. These amazing achievements culminated into the greatest stone buildings of all time - the pyramids of Giza, and in particular the great pyramid of Khufu. They were the major achievements of the 4th dynasty. The origins and subsequent evolution of the pyramid complex can be seen in the royal tombs and funerary enclosures at Early Dynastic Abydos and the step pyramid at Saqqara.
Because the pharaoh was revered as a god, his tomb was constructed to last forever, and to ensure the continuing prosperity of the pharaoh in his afterlife. Like the early mastabas, the 4th dynasty pyramids had no decorations.
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| 5th and 6th Dynasty Pyramids: |
During the Old Kingdom's 5th and 6th dynasty, the scale and construction of the pyramid changed dramatically. The last ruler of the 5th Dynasty, Unas, seems to have been the first to inscribe the pyramid texts on the internal walls of his pyramid. These took the form of hieroglyphic writings providing guidelines and instructions on how to ensure safe voyage through the nether world and the eternal life thereafter.
The standard of workmanship in pyramid building declined along with the political and economic structure of the Old Kingdom.
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| First Intermediate Period: |
The construction of pyramid tombs had all but disappeared during the First Intermediate Period.
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| Middle Kingdom Pyramids: |
The form of the pyramid complex was revived once more during the Middle Kingdom by the 12th Dynasty pharaoh Amenemhet I. Pyramids were built with a stone core and a framework of rough blocks, filled with a combination of mudbrick, debris and sand. An outer facing of fine tufa limestone created a finished effect not unlike the great stone pyramids of the Old Kingdom. However the use of mudbrick construction is a problem with regard to preservation, and once the outer casing of limestone had been removed, the pyramid would deteriorate badly. As such, most Middle Kingdom pyramids today resemble little more than heaps of rubble.
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| The New Kingdom tombs: |
A very different approach was taken to tomb building during the New Kingdom phase. Very elaborate, deep rock-cut underground tombs became popular. Part of the reason for this change was to attempt to conceal the locations of the tombs from robbers. This period of ancient Egyptian history saw perhaps the most glorious tombs of all - highly decorated with scenes of the journey that the deceased would take as they transcended from this life to the afterlife. The introduction of complex funerary texts, such as The Book of the Dead were introduced into the tombs, and included richly coloured and graphically detailed representations of the deceased's journey.
Each tomb could look dramatically different as experimentation with a variety of different styles was undertaken.
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THE TOMBS OF THE NOBLES:
The noblemen - usually the high ranking government officials, royal scribes and high priests, had decidedly more modest tombs than their royal leaders. Initially the portrayal of the afterlife in the company of gods was reserved solely for the pharaoh, and so the noblemen's tombs were generally decorated with scenes that represented everyday Egyptian life. Gradually, as the ideal of the Egyptian religion became available to all, religious scenes began to pervade the private tomb paintings. Interestingly, private tombs can also often reflect the subtle differences in the style of art favoured by the current pharaoh - what was "in vogue" at that time.
These tombs offer an captivating insight into the daily activities and events that were important to, or played a part in, the lives of the individuals concerned.
| 1st Dynasty burials: |
Craftsmens, artists and dependents in the royal household were usually buried near their king. Constructed in long lines adjoining one another, these tombs were oblong pits or chambers where the bodies were placed wrapped in linen. Around them dishes containing food and jars of wine, as well as the tools of their trade were also included in the burial. The pits would then be roofed over with timber and a low, rectangular structure would be built of rubble above.
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| The Mastaba: |
During the Old Kingdom period, nobles were often buried in mastabas. These mastabas were decorated with non-religious scenes depicting the daily life and official duties of the deceased. Of particular note, are the 6th Dynasty Old Kingdom mastaba at Saqqara which contain beautiful and revealing scenes: men force-feeding geese, cattle crossing a canal, men dragging a statue on a sled to the tomb. The best-known of these tombs are those of Meruruka, Ti, Kagemni, Niankhkhum and Khnumhotep the "two brothers", and Ptahhotep.
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| Middle Kingdom through to the New Kingdom tombs of the Nobles: |
During the Middle Kingdom, and progressively through into the New Kingdom period, the introduction of a more socially equal ideal of the state religion became more customary. The rock-cut tombs of the nobles continued to depict their daily activities, but now included scenes with strong religious overtones. Ordinary Egyptians had the right to expect that they too would be judged worthy, and just like pharaoh, they could also make it safely through the arduous voyage to the afterlife.
Tomb decoration probably reached it zenith during the New Kingdom. The tombs of the Nobles are beautifully decorated with such scenes. Unlike the royal tombs, which follow a specific funerary theme, the private tombs' decorations often break with convention, and as such can be artistically more pleasing.
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The private New Kingdom tombs on the West Bank at Luxor are referred to as being T-shaped, particularly those located on the slopes of Sheikh Abd el-Qurna in the area known as the Tombs of the Nobles. An entrance corridor or a courtyard leads into a wide vestibule, and another short corridor that leads into a long chapel, often with a small niche at its rear.
TOMBS OF THE WORKERS:
| Pre-dynastic and Early Dynastic burials: |
The working class and peasant people had very simple graves. Their tombs usually consisted of an oval or rectangular shaped pit where the body was placed, sometimes on a reed mat, in a contracted position, surrounded by their earthly possessions. These pits were then roofed with branches and matting that would support the mound of sand and rubble that was piled above it.
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| Tombs of the pyramid builders at Giza: |
Recent excavations near the valley temple have uncovered more of this vast city of workers who built and maintained the pyramids for generations afterwards. The average age at death of the workmen was very early, 30 to 35 years, and all the skeletons of both men and women showed signs of stress in their backs. Mummification was reserved for royalty and nobility only.
The tombs come in a variety of forms: stepped domes, beehives, and gabled roofs. The domes covered simple rectangular grave pits, following the configuration of the pyramids in an extremely simplified form. One small tomb featured a miniature ramp leading up and around its dome, whilst other tombs resemble miniature mastabas with tiny courtyards and stone false doors with the names and titles of the deceased inscribed on them.
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| New Kingdom tombs of the workers at Deir el-Medina, Thebes: |
Probably the best known examples of the New Kingdom worker's tombs are to be found at Deir el-Medina in the "worker's village". These were the craftsmen and artisans who were responsible for building the nearby royal tombs, who were afforded the luxury of being able to build and decorate their very own "house of eternity". Consisting of a vaulted chamber hewn out of the rock with a mudbrick lining, with maybe an antechamber and a storeroom, the tombs were small and restricted. Despite the lack of space however, these 19th Dynasty tombs show an incredible diversity in their decorations. Probably the most famous of these, and whose tomb decorations are the by far the most reproduced, is that of Sennedjem, "servant in the place of truth." The pictures in his tomb are fresh and spontaneous and almost perfectly intact, and are considered to be the most beautiful within the necropolis. |
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